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. The consequent American Civil War beginning in 1861 led to the end of chattel slavery in America Not long after the war broke out through a legal maneuver credited to Union General Benjamin F Butler a lawyer by profession slaves who came into Union "possession" were considered "contraband of war" General Butler ruled that they were not subject to return to Confederate owners as they had been before the war Soon word spread and many slaves sought refuge in Union territory desiring to be declared "contraband" Many of the "contrabands" joined the Union Army as workers or troops forming entire regiments of the U.S Colored Troops Others went to refugee camps such as the Grand Contraband Camp near Fort Monroe or fled to northern cities General Butler's interpretation was reinforced when Congress passed the Confiscation Act of 1861 which declared that any property used by the Confederate military including slaves could be confiscated by Union forces. US President John Tyler's administration suggested a tripartite pact that would settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco from Mexico Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S territorial acquisition there the British minister in Mexico Richard Pakenham wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California" saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony .. by all means desirable . that California once ceasing to belong to Mexico should not fall into the hands of any power but England . daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction." But by the time the letter reached London Sir Robert Peel's Tory government with its Little England policy had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict. Historian Gregg L Frazer argues that the leading Founders (John Adams Jefferson Franklin Wilson Morris Madison Hamilton and Washington) were neither Christians nor Deists but rather supporters of a hybrid "theistic rationalism". Washington D.C. Business Directory Painting of men in a formal political meeting 14.2 General histories 9.1.3 Protestant Dissenters and the Great Awakening In the mid-20th century historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative opposite to the characteristics of the Patriots. Loyalists tended to feel that resistance to the Crown was morally wrong while the Patriots thought that morality was on their side. Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence such as burning houses and tarring and feathering Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown Many Loyalists had maintained strong and long-standing relations with Britain especially merchants in port cities such as New York and Boston. Many Loyalists felt that independence was bound to come eventually but they were fearful that revolution might lead to anarchy tyranny or mob rule in contrast the prevailing attitude among Patriots was a desire to seize the initiative. Labaree also wrote that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots. . .

Capital as symbol Early European colonists who settled along the Potomac found a diversity of large and small mammals living in the dense forests nearby Bison elk wolves ( gray and red) and panthers (cougars) were still present at that time but had been hunted to extirpation by the middle of the 19th century Among the denizens of the Potomac's banks beavers and otters met a similar fate while small populations of minks and martens survived into the 20th century in some secluded areas, 9.1 Higher education A month before the end of the war Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States." This criticism in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions followed congressional scrutiny of the war's beginnings including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk the vote followed party lines with all Whigs supporting the amendment Lincoln's attack won lukewarm support from fellow Whigs in Illinois but was harshly counter-attacked by Democrats who rallied pro-war sentiments in Illinois; Lincoln's Spot resolutions haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois and were cited by enemies well into his presidency, 6.8.4.1 Battle of Chapultepec Main articles: Republic of Texas Texas annexation and Texas Revolution; . . National capitals were arguably less important as military objectives in other parts of the world including the West because of socioeconomic trends toward localized authority a strategic modus operandi especially popular after the development of feudalism and reaffirmed by the development of democratic and capitalistic philosophies in 1204 after the Latin Crusaders captured the Byzantine capital Constantinople Byzantine forces were able to regroup in several provinces; provincial noblemen managed to reconquer the capital after 60 years and preserve the empire for another 200 years after that the British forces sacked various American capitals repeatedly during the Revolutionary War and War of 1812 but American forces could still carry on fighting from the countryside where they enjoyed support from local governments and the traditionally independent civilian frontiersmen Exceptions to these generalizations include highly centralized states such as France whose centralized bureaucracies could effectively coordinate far-flung resources giving the state a powerful advantage over less coherent rivals but risking utter ruin if the capital were taken in their military strategies traditional enemies of France such as Prussia (in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871) focused on the capture of Paris, Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such: for example Bern Edinburgh Lisbon London Paris and Wellington They are recognised as capitals as a matter of convention and because all or almost all the country's central political institutions such as government departments supreme court legislature embassies etc. are located in or near them, In July 1777 British General John Burgoyne led the Saratoga campaign south from Quebec through Lake Champlain and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga with the objective of dividing New England including control of the Hudson River But General Howe in British-occupied New York blundered taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany. Meanwhile Washington and Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe and were shocked to learn of Burgoyne's progress in upstate New York where the Patriots were led by General Philip Schuyler and successor Horatio Gates Washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the pitched battles at Philadelphia. .